Human Anatomy and Physiology

Biology 12

Statement to the Students

Course Prerequisites:

Students must meet the following prerequisites:

Successful completion of Biology 11 and either Bio 7 or 13.

Course Description:

Biology 12 is the second semester of a one-year course in Human Anatomy and Physiology. Both Biology 11 and Biology 12 are designed to provide students with a thorough understanding of the basic principles inherent in the study of human anatomy and physiology, and is intended for students majoring in the allied‑health professions, e.g. nursing, pre‑physical therapy, pre‑physicians assistant, etc.  The emphasis of this course will be concerned with understanding the structural and functional relationships of the major organ systems of the human body.  A special effort will be made to understand the concept of homeostasis and how the individual organ systems of the body interact with each other in the maintenance of the normal functioning of the entire organism.

Biology 12 combines both lecture and laboratory experiences over a twelve week period.  Each week, the class meets for a two-hour lecture session, a one-hour recitation and a three-hour laboratory session.  Attendance at these sessions is mandatory, and absences will not be permitted.

There will be two writing assignments during the semester, based on a journal, or some other scientific reference suggested, and approved by your instructor.    A typed one-page summary must be submitted for each of the readings.  The topic for each of the readings is to correspond to a topic in any two of the course units.  Your instructor may substitute alternative writing assignments.

 The assignments are to be submitted type written, double-spaced on 8 1/2 x 11 typing paper, and must include a complete bibliographic reference to the source of the original article from which the abstract was prepared. A Xerox copy of the original article must be submitted with your summary.  The grades for these assignments will be incorporated into your laboratory grade for the semester.  Your instructor will provide additional information concerning this assignment.

Required Textbook and Laboratory Manual:

1.       Saladin, K.S: Anatomy and Physiology (3rd ed.).  New York: McGraw Hill Co. Inc., 2004.

2.       Nicpon-Marieb, E: Human Anatomy and Physiology Laboratory Manual (cat ed.).  Menlo Park, California: Benjamin Cummings Publishing Company, 1999.

Required Materials:

 1. Dissecting Kit for laboratory dissections.

 2. Laboratory Coat: Newly introduced health and safety regulations now require that you wear a laboratory coat or other form of protective clothing in the laboratory.

 3. Disposable Latex Gloves: required for all laboratories using certain hazardous materials (materials that contain body fluids or secretions.)

Recommended: Rust, Thomas G: A Guide to Anatomy & Physiology Lab. (2nd ed.). Boerne, Texas: Southwest Educational Enterprises, 1986.

Learning Objectives:

You will note that each of the chapters in your textbook and the laboratory exercises in your laboratory manual begins with a list of clearly defined objectives.  These objectives are not questions, rather they identify the goals that should be achieved if you have carefully read and understood the assigned readings.  It is strongly suggested that you read the list of objectives prior to each assignment and then again after you have completed your readings.  If you have successfully mastered the goals represented by these objectives, you can be assured that you have been successful in your readings.

As part of this packet you will also find lists of learning objectives that refer to goals that should be mastered for each of the basic units.  These objectives should serve as a guide and are not to be considered representative of all of the information that you will be required to master.  One way to help insure success on the unit examinations as well as other tests that you will be taking is to be sure that you have mastered the goals listed in these objectives. 

Reading Assignments:

To obtain the maximum advantage from the required readings, you should complete the readings before coming to class for the week in which the assignments are given.  The lecture syllabus lists the reading assignments that will prepare you for the lectures and laboratory exercises for that particular week and refers to reading assignments in your textbook. The sequence of laboratory exercises lists reading assignments in the laboratory manual.  It is very important for you to be familiar with the laboratory exercises before performing the experiments or procedures described in the manual. The benefits that you will derive by completing the readings for lecture and laboratory prior to the week for which they are assigned are as follows:

    1. You will find that it is easier to understand the lecture and

        laboratory material because you already have some background

        regarding the topics that are to be covered.

    2. The reading assignments for lecture and laboratory are directly

        related to the topics that will be covered.  If you are already

        familiar with these topics, you will find that you will be able to                        

        take fewer and better notes and pay more attention to what the

        lecturer is saying.

    3.  Prior reading of the assignments can help you to pinpoint areas

         which may be giving you some difficulty.  You then can pay very

         special attention to what the lecturer is saying when discussing

         these same topics.

    4.  Reading the assigned material for the laboratory in both the

         textbook and laboratory manual prior to coming to laboratory

         will help you to get most from your laboratory experiences.  Having

          relevant background information will significantly help you to

          better understand the laboratory exercises.

Grade Determination:

1.  Laboratory: The laboratory portion of Biology 12 represents 50% of the course grade.  The grade for laboratory will be based on your quiz grades, the writing assignments, and other factors that will be explained to you by your laboratory instructor.

2. Lecture:  There will be three unit exams that will be administered during the semester (consult the syllabus as to the exact weeks).  Each of the unit examinations will represent 10% of your grade.  The final examination will account for 20% of your grade.

3. Summary of the grading procedures.

    Laboratory quizzes, summaries, class participation etc.                =   50%

    First unit examination                =   10%

    Second unit examination                =   10%

    Third unit examination                =   10%

    Final examination                =   20%

                       Total                = 100%

Biology 12
LECTURE OUTLINE

WEEK #           LECTURE TOPICS AND READING ASSIGNMENTS

1              A.  Introduction to Course, Course Organization

B.  Introduction to the Cardiovascular System

1. Brief overview of function and organization of the                              cardiovascular system.

C. Properties of Blood.

1. Composition and volume of blood.

2. Nature of formed elements of blood: structure, function.

a. erythrocytes.

b. leukocytes.

c. platelets

3. Hemopoesis.

4. Blood Plasma: composition, function.

5. Hemostasis:

a‑phases of hemostasis,

                                           b‑intrinsic, and extrinsic pathways,

                                           c‑prevention of coagulation.

6. Blood typing, ABO blood group, rH factor.

Lecture Reading Assignment: ch. 18, pp.680 - 712

Laboratory Reading Assignment: same as lecture.

2-3                      A. Cardiovascular Physiology

1. Structure, function, location of the heart.

2. Cardiac physiology

a. properties of heart muscle

b. conduction system of the heart

c. cardiac cycle

d. heart sounds

e. regulation of cardiac cycle

f. cardiac output

 WEEK #           LECTURE TOPICS AND READING ASSIGNMENTS

2-3           3. Blood Vessel Organization

a. arteries, and arterioles‑structure and organization to be                   discussed in laboratory

b. veins, venules‑structure and organization to be discussed                                                                  in laboratory

c. capillaries‑

d. permeability

4. Blood Pressure

a. factors affecting blood pressure

b. control over blood pressure

Lecture Reading Assignments: ch.19, ch.20, pp.715 - 798

Laboratory Reading Assignments: ch.19, pp. 715 - 745

4‑5           A. Unit I Exam and Unit I Summary Due

B.  The Respiratory System.

1. Mechanisms of Breathing.                              

a. inspiration‑expiration.

b. respiratory volumes.

2. Control of Breathing.

a. respiratory control center.

b. factors affecting respiratory rate.

3. Gas Exchange.

a. mechanism of gaseous exchange.

4. Transport of Gases.

                                     a. oxygen transport.

b. carbon monoxide transport.

c. carbon dioxide transport.

Lecture reading assignment: ch.22.

Laboratory reading assignment: ch. 22

WEEK #            LECTURE TOPICS AND READING ASSIGNMENT

6              A.  Introduction to the Lymphatic System

1. Lymphatic pathways and vessels.

2. Composition and movement of lymphatic fluid.

3. Lymphatic organs.

a. lymph nodes

b. spleen

c. thymus

B. Resistance to Disease

1. Various Defense mechanisms: e.g.

mechanical barriers,  enzymatic action,  interferon,

inflammatory response, phagocytosis.

2. Immunity

a. role of lymphatic system

b. origin and nature of lymphocytes

c. function of 'T' and 'B' lymphocytes

d. nature and action of antibodies

e. the immune response

f. types of immunity.  g. allergic reactions

Lecture Reading Assignments: ch. 21

Laboratory Reading Assignments: ch. 21

7              A. Unit II Exam

B. Unit II Summary Due

C.          Urinary System.

1. Urine Formation.

a. physiological principles controlling renal activities

b. glomerular filtration.

c. tubular reabsorption.

d. tubular secretion.

2. Control of Urinary Output.

a. ADH, aldosterone.

3. Micturition, process of urination

Lecture reading assignment: ch. 23

Laboratory reading assignment: ch.23

WEEK #         LECTURE TOPICS AND READING ASSIGNMENTS

8                       A. Fluids and Electrolytes.

1. Distribution of Body Fluids.

a. fluid compartments.

b. composition of body fluids.

c. movements of fluids between compartments.

2. Water Balance.

a. fluid intake.

b. regulation of intake.

c. fluid output.

d. regulation of water balance.

                       3. Electrolyte Balance.

a. intake.

b. regulation.

                                                                  Lecture reading assignment: ch.24

                Laboratory reading assignment: same as lecture

9              A.  Acid Base Balance.

1. Review acid, bases, and pH.

2. Role of Buffer Systems in the body

3. Role of the Respiratory and Urinary systems in

   maintaining a constant pH.

B.  Male Reproductive Physiology.

1. Hormonal control of male reproductive functions.

a. GnRH, FSH, LH.

b. male sex hormones.

c. action and regulation of male sex hormones.

Lecture Reading Assignment: ch. 24, ch. 27

Laboratory Reading Assignment: same as lecture                

10‑11                 A.  Unit III Exam & Unit III Summary Due

B.         Female Reproductive Physiology.

1. Hormonal control of the female reproductive cycle.

a. pituitary and hypothalamic hormones.

b. female reproductive cycle.

c. effects of female sex hormones.

                           2. Pregnancy.

a. hormonal changes associated with pregnancy.

b. other changes during pregnancy.

c. labor, the birth process, and parturition

d. mammary glands.

  1. breast development.

  2. lactation

                                                  Lecture Reading Assignment: ch. 28

         Laboratory Reading Assignment: same as lecture

WEEK #         LECTURE TOPICS AND READING ASSIGNMENTS

      10‑11

                      C.  Early Embryonic Development.

1. Early cleavage.

2. Embryonic stages.

3. Extra‑embryonic membranes and placenta.

4. Fetal Stage.

D.  Fetal Circulation

1. specialized fetal circulatory structures, and fetal                                                                                  circulatory pathways

2. circulatory changes at birth or shortly thereafter

Lecture and Laboratory Reading Assignment ch. 29.

12            Human Body in Health and Disease:

Case Study‑@AIDS@

BIOLOGY 12
 LABORATORY EXERCISES

 WEEK NO.      LABORATORY TOPICS         LAB. MANUAL EXERCISE NO.

1                   Circulatory System part I          29

1. Properties of blood    

    a. formed elements‑Wright’s stain 

    b. hematocrit

    c. hemoglobin‑Tallquist method    

    d. coagulation time      

2         Circulatory System II Heart and Vessels                  30

1. Anatomy of the Heart

    a. organization, gross anatomy

    b. dissection of sheep heart

    c. Film: "Work of the Heart"

2. Organization of blood vessels‑histology                32

3         Circulatory System III Circulatory Pathways

1. Gross Anatomical Organization:              32

   circulatory pathways

   a. cardiopulmonary

   b. systemic pathways

   c. hepatic portal circulation

   d. fetal circulation                

2. Cat Dissection

4         Cardiovascular Physiology             

1. Conduction system of the heart           

   a. electrocardiography/Computer exercises                 

2. Cardiac Cycle and Heart Sounds              33

3. Pulse Rate/Computer exercise   

4. Blood pressure measurements  

5. Effect of exercise and other factors

   on B.P. and heart rate.

Intellitool Supplement Cardiac Physiology             

WEEK NO.         LABORATORY TOPICS         LAB. MANUAL EXERCISE NO.

5      The Respiratory System          

1. Organization, gross anatomy,            37, 38

    histology.          

2. Cat dissection: respiratory system             

3. Mechanics of breathing, respiratory

    volumes, respiratory sounds.

4. Demo: Frog ciliary action.

5. Computer Exercise Respiratory rate/volumes

Intellitool Supplement Respiratory Physiology

        6          Lymphatics and Immunity          36

1. Completion of respiratory system.

2. blood typing

         7          The Urinary System.                    41

1. Organization, gross anatomy,

    histology.

2. Dissection; Sheep kidney.

3. Cat dissection: urinary system.

         8                 A. Urinalysis                        42

1. Composition of Urine.

2. Analysis of components of normal

  and abnormal urine.

B.  Fluid Balance           Supplement.

C.  Acids, Bases, Buffers             

9         Reproduction Part I           4

1. Mitosis

2. Organization, gross anatomy,            44

    histology male and female

    reproductive systems.

10        Reproduction Part II          44

1. Cat dissection: male and female

    reproductive systems

2. Meiosis, gametogenesis         

3. Ovarian cycle

WEEK NO.         LABORATORY TOPICS         LAB. MANUAL EXERCISE NO.

11        Embryonic Development Part I                    45

1. Sea Urchin embryology

2. Chick embryology

   a. extra embryonic membranes

    b. early stages of development

3. Human development

   a. early stages of human development

   b. placenta

4. Filmstrip: Life Before Birth

5. Selected media      

12        A. Embryonic Development Part II 

1. Complete development from lab # 11

    B. Case Study: HIV‑reports/presentations.

    C. FINAL LAB PRACTICAL (Instructor's Option)

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

NOTE TO THE STUDENT:

On page 2 of your course outline you will find a brief discussion of the importance of mastering the learning objectives for Biology 12.  The list of learning objectives that follows is intended to provide you with a guide as to the minimum amount of basic material that you are expected to master upon completion of each unit of the course.  Your individual course instructor may wish to modify this list by either deleting or adding additional objectives at his/her discretion.

Each objective, whether from the textbook, laboratory manual or the list below, represents a statement of a knowledge, technique, or skill, that you are expected to acquire from your assigned readings, laboratory experiences, lectures or other learning activities.  The mastery of these learning objectives is directly related to your success in the course.  Success can be obtained only if you take the time and effort to test yourself as a means of determining whether or not you have met the required objectives.  You may find it necessary to read a paragraph or section in the assigned readings a number of times before you are satisfied that you have clearly understood what you have read.  This is to be expected in a science course, and you must not allow your self to become easily frustrated.

UNIT I: LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

A.         Cardiovascular System

1.        List four major functions of blood and the cardiovascular system.

2.        Define the formed elements, plasma, serum, hematocrit, and viscosity.

3.        Describe the functions of each of the formed elements of blood.

4.        Briefly describe the process of hemopoeisis (production of blood components).

5.        Identify each of the cellular components of blood from either a series of models or a blood smear.

6.        State the importance of a differential blood count.

7.        Explain the origin and action of erythropoetin.

8.        Describe the chemical composition of hemoglobin and its function in the red blood cell.

9.        Explain why a certain amount of iron is required in the diet and what role it plays in the hemoglobin molecule.

10.        Define and explain what is meant by polycythemia vera.

11.        Explain what is meant by anemia.

12.        Describe the following types anemia, and their possible causes: a‑lack of exercise, b‑blood loss, c‑genetic (sickle cell anemia, thalessemia), d‑iron deficiency, e‑pernicious, f‑aplastic.

13.        State the average life span of a red blood cell, and how damaged or aged         erythrocytes are removed from the circulation.

14.        Describe the production and fate of bilirubin.

15.        List four main protein components of plasma and three of the smaller molecules most often found dissolved in plasma and the function of each.

16.        Describe the process of blood clotting, including both the extrinsic and intrinsic pathways.

17.        List the phases in blood clot formation and the function of each.

18.        Explain platelet plug formation and its significance.

19.        Explain the role of the liver, intestinal bacteria, vitamin K, clotting factors and calcium ions in the process of blood clot formation.

20.        Explain the homeostatic mechanisms of clot formation.

21.        List two anti‑coagulants, and describe the importance of maintaining a balance between clot formation and anticoagulation.

22.        Describe how a clot functions in wound healing.

23.        Describe the inflammatory response and the role-played by basophils and         histamine.

24.        Define leukemia and leukopenia.

25. Explain what is meant by A, B, O, and Rh blood typing, and why

incompatibilities between certain blood types exist.

26. Explain the concept of 'universal donor' and 'universal recipient' and why they are not really correct terms.

27.        Define the terms antigens, antibodies, agglutinins and agglutinogens.

28.        Given a diagram of a heart or a dissected sheep heart, be able to identify all of the major structures, chambers, valves, and blood vessels associated with the heart.

29.        Briefly describe the functions of each of the structures identified above.

30.        Trace the path of a drop of blood from the inferior vena cava to the descending aorta. BE SPECIFIC, LIST ALL OF THE STRUCTURES, VESSELS PARTS OF THE HEART, VALVES IN THE PATHWAY.

31.        Explain the electrical events of the heart as they relate to a normal         electrocardiogram.

32.        Explain what is meant by the cardiac cycle.

33.        Describe the rhythmicity of the heart, and how it can be altered by the autonomic nervous system and certain ions such as calcium, potassium etc.

34.        Describe the heart sounds, and what produces them, as well as what is meant by a 'murmur'.

35.        With the use of a simple diagram or a chart, compare the structure and function of arteries, veins and capillaries.

36.        Explain the 'law of the heart'.

37.        Explain blood pressure.

38.        Briefly describe the procedure used to measure a patient's blood pressure.

39.        Explain the difference between systolic pressure and diastolic pressure.

40.        Describe the changes to blood pressure as you proceed further and         further away from the heart.

41.        Explain what pulse is.

42.        Explain how venous blood can return to the heart; even though the blood pressure in the veins is virtually zero.

43.        List the major factors that affect blood pressure.

44.        Explain how each of the factors listed above can effect blood pressure.

45.        Describe a homeostatic mechanism to maintain a constant blood pressure.

46.        Differentiate between atherosclerosis and arteriosclerosis and the implications of both in heart and vascular disease.

47.        Define thrombus, embolus, and aneurysm.

48.        Describe the factors involved in the movements of fluids across the capillaries.

49.        Describe the structure and function of lymphatic vessels and nodes.

50.        List and explain three main factors contributing to edema.

51.        Define immunity.

52.        Explain what is meant by the "immune system".

53. Define B‑lymphocytes, plasma cells, memory cells, gamma globulin, cellular immunity, and humoral immunity.

54.        Explain the role of t‑lymphocytes, t‑4 helper cells, cytotoxic cells, memory cells, suppressor cells, and the thymus gland in immunity.

55.        Contrast passive and active immunity.

56.        Define autoimmunity, allergy, and complement.

57.        Explain the importance of the immune system.

58.        Define "AIDS", and explain why it is such a major health problem today.

59.        Describe 3 measures that can be taken to help prevent the spread of "AIDS".

B.        Respiratory System

1.        List in order, all of the structures of the respiratory tract/system.

2.        Describe the functions of each of the structures of the respiratory tract and system.

3.        Explain the difference between the respiratory tract and the respiratory system.

4.        Differentiate between external respiration, internal respiration, and cellular respiration.

5.        Describe the mechanism of breathing (inhalation, exhalation), and explain         why expansion and contraction of the lungs is a passive process.

6.        Explain Boyle's Law, and its relationship to the process of breathing.

7.        Define the following: tidal volume, inspiratory reserve volume, expiratory reserve volume, vital capacity, residual volume, dead air space.

8.        Explain the partial pressure of a gas, and describe its role in the transport and exchange of C0₂ and 0₂. 

9.          List 4 factors that exert an effect on the control of breathing and explain how each factor effects the overall respiratory rate.

10.        Describe the Hering‑Breuer reflex, and explain its role in the regulation of breathing.

11.        Explain the role of hemoglobin in the transport of 0₂, C0₂ and C0.

12.        Describe the effect of change in blood pH on the affinity, binding, and separation of 0₂ and C0₂ from hemoglobin.

13.        Describe the major forms in which 0₂ and C0₂ are transported by the blood.

14.        Explain the mechanism of gaseous exchange  (0₂ and C0₂), between the alveoli and the blood, and between the blood and the body tissues.

15.        Explain the chloride shift.

16.        Describe the processes of coughing and sneezing.  Explain the importance of each of these reflexes.

UNIT THREE: LEARNING OBJECTIVES

A. Urinary System.

1.  List in order, the major organs of the urinary system; state their location in the body, and the function of each.

2.  List three functions of the urinary system in addition to the removal of metabolic wastes from the blood.

3.  Label a diagram of the gross structures of the urinary system, as well as a detailed diagram of the organization of a nephron.

4.  Identify the major structures of the nephron and the function of each.

5.  List the major metabolic waste products found in urine.

6.  State where urea, one of the major metabolic wastes, is produced and describe its mechanism of synthesis.

7.  Describe the vascularization of the kidneys by tracing the path of a drop of blood from the descending aorta to the inferior vena cava.

8.  To demonstrate the pathway involved in urine formation, trace the path of

    a molecule of urea, from the descending aorta to the external environment.

9.  List and describe the three major processes involved in urine formation.

10.  Define micturition, and describe how it is controlled.

11.  Describe the homeostatic mechanisms involved in regulating urine                  formation and output.  Be sure to discuss the role of ADH and aldosterone.

12.  Explain the effect of change in blood volume and pressure on glomerular filtration.

13.  List three abnormal components of urine, and state the possible implications of the presence of these substances in the urine.

14.  Describe the renin‑angiotensin II mechanism and explain its importance.

B.  Fluids and Electrolytes.

1.  Explain the importance of water in the body.

2.  Identify the major fluid compartments of the body and state the volume of fluid in each one.

3.  Compare and contrast intracellular fluid composition to extracellular  fluid composition.  Be sure to distinguish between the nature of the dissolved solutes and the amount of solutes distributed in each compartment. 

4.  Define or explain each of the following terms: blood hydrostatic pressure, sometimes also called blood fluid pressure, plasma colloid osmotic pressure, interstitial fluid hydrostatic pressure, tissue colloid osmotic pressure, effective glomerular filtration pressure.

5.  Describe the factors that tend to keep fluids within their respective body compartments.

6.  Describe the factors that tend to cause fluids to leave their respective body compartments.

7.  Explain the role of colloidal particles and plasma proteins in the movement of fluids between fluid compartments.

8.  Define an electrolyte, and describe its importance to the body.

9.  List the major routes of fluid entry and exit from the body.

10.  List and describe the mechanisms that regulate fluid input and fluid output.

11.  Explain the importance of maintaining fluid and electrolyte balance within the body.

12.  Describe the mechanism for maintaining homeostasis of Na⁺ and K⁺ ions.

13.  Explain what would happen if there were a major increase in fluid input without a corresponding increase in fluid output.  

C.  pH and Acid Base Balance.

1.  Describe the properties of acids, bases and neutral salts.

2.  Explain the concept of pH.

3.  Explain the difference between a strong acid and a weak acid and between a strong base and a weak base.

4.  List three different sources of H⁺ ions in the body.

5.  State the normal pH range of the blood, and explain why it is so important to maintain such a relatively constant pH in the blood.

6.  Describe what a buffer system is and what its function is.

7.  Compare and contrast the role of buffer systems, the respiratory system and the urinary system in maintaining the pH of the body.

8.  Using the bicarbonate buffer system as an example, describe how a buffer system is able to resist a change in pH even though there may be a shift in H⁺ ion concentration.

9.  Explain what is meant by respiratory acidosis or alkalosis.

10.  Explain what is meant by metabolic acidosis or alkalosis.

11.  Describe how the body normally prevents the phenomena listed in                     objectives 9 and 10 above from occurring.

UNIT IV: LEARNING OBJECTIVES

A. Reproduction.

1.  Describe the individual functions of both the male and female                           reproductive systems.

2.  Given diagrams of both the male and female reproductive systems, identify the major structures of each, and briefly state the function of each structure.

3.  Trace the pathway of a packet of sperm from its site of production in the male reproductive tract to fertilization in the female reproductive tract.

4.  Given a cross section of the testis as seen under the microscope, identify the following structures: seminiferous tubules, germinal epithelium, interstitial tissue, primary spermatocytes, secondary spermatocytes, and spermatids mature sperm.

5. Identify the major structures as seen under the microscope in a cross section of the penis. Be sure to include the urethra, corpora cavernosa, and corpus spongiosum.

6.  Given a cross section of an ovary as seen under the microscope, identify the following structures: primordial follicle, developing follicle, mature follicle and ovum, degenerating follicle, and corpus luteum.

7.  Describe the accessory glands of the male and female reproductive tracts and explain the function of each.

8.  Differentiate between primary and secondary sexual characteristics in both the male and female.

9.  List three primary characteristics of the male and female.

10.  List three secondary sexual characteristics of the male and female.

11.  Identify the secondary sex hormones of the male and female, and describe the functions of each of them.

12.  List the gonadotrophic hormones produced by the anterior pituitary in the male and female and describe the functions of each one.

13.  Describe the negative feedback loops that exist between the anterior pituitary, the secondary sex hormones, and the hypothalamus.

14.  Explain what is meant by the human menstrual cycle.

15.  Describe the events of the menstrual cycle.  Compare them to the events of the ovarian cycle.

16.  Explain the relationships that exist between the rise and fall of FSH, LH, estrogen, and progesterone, and the events of the menstrual cycle.

17.  Describe the changes that occur to the ovary and to the uterus during the normal menstrual cycle.

18.  State when during the menstrual cycle fertilization can occur, and describe the changes in the ovary and uterus if pregnancy does occur.

19.  Define mitosis, meiosis and gametogenesis.

20.  Explain the significance of mitosis to the human, and describe the events of each stage in the process of mitosis.

21.  Prepare a chart, in which you compare the major features and events of mitosis to meiosis.  Be sure to point out similarities and differences in the two processes.

22.  Describe the processes of spermatogenesis and oogenesis.  Be sure to explain the role of meiosis in these processes.

23.  Explain the significance of reductional division in the process of gametogenesis.

24.  Using diagrams, explain the differences that exist between the processes of spermatogenesis and oogenesis.  Explain the significance of the differences between the two processes.

25.  Describe several alternative methods of birth control that can be used by the male or female.

26.  Explain the effectiveness of oral contraceptives based on their relationship to hormonal control of the female reproductive cycle.

27.  Describe birth and explain the role of hormones in the process.

B. Development.

1.  Explain what is meant by embryological development.

2.  Explain the difference between growth, morphogenesis and differentiation

3.  Describe the phases of early development from fertilization to formation of the primary germ layers.

4.  List the primary germ layers; explain what they are, and then list two derivatives of each one.

5.  Explain the difference between embryo and fetus.

6.  Describe the processes involved in formation of the extra embryonic membranes and placentation.

7.  Given a diagram of a developing embryo with its extra‑embryonic membranes, label each membrane and describe its function during pregnancy.

8.  Compare the role of the umbilical cord to that of the placenta in maintaining pregnancy.

9.  Describe the fetal circulatory modifications that exist and the changes that occur in the cardiovascular system at or shortly after birth.

10.  Trace the path of a molecule of oxygen from the umbilical vein in the fetus to the inferior vena cava in the mother.